Four Developmental Theorists (Kohlberg, Gilligan, Maslow, and Vygotsky)

Four Developmental Theorists: Kohlberg, Gilligan, Maslow, Vygotsky

Introduction

A myriad of theories concerning child (human) development have emerged from the brilliance of pioneers within the fields of psychology, education, and human development. From this plethora of theories created,  I have chosen four (theories) whose approaches to child development are focused on the ideas of morality and care, cognition, and motivation.  Within this paper, I briefly cover these theories as conceptualized by psychologists: Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan, Abraham Maslow, and Lev Vygotsky.  It is important to note that the bodies of work posited by these theorists originated during distinctly different time periods, within diverse cultures, and contain particular perspectives whereby leaving an indelible and distinctive fingerprinting upon each individual theory.  In understanding the divergent nature of each theorist and their theory,  it is also necessary to temper the contents of their work by identifying its contributions, real world applications, and limitations within the contexts of human development.    

For the purposes of comprehension, some attention should be given to the terminology and vocabulary in use.  A  theory (within the context of this paper) may be defined as a supposition or system of ideas whose intention is to explain why or how something occurs.  (Dictionary, 2017)  Each theory is postulated from a set of systems which include paradigms, frameworks, meta-theories, approaches, and the like.  Each of these terms may be and are used differently depending on the theorist.  However, in an effort to provide a general understanding of the theories included within this paper, the following definitions shall be applied (1) paradigms are worldviews; perspectives; a way of looking at something, (2) approaches are assumptions such as behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognition, etcetera (3) models are descriptions and/or representations about how a system or process works , and (4) frameworks are explanations of why a theory exists and includes a basic description of that theory.  

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

“The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart from the individual's own identification with the group.”

-Lawrence Kohlberg

Development of Theory, Paradigm, and Meta-theory       

    Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was an American psychologist known best for his theory of moral development.  Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is rooted in a constructivist (learning is an active and constructive process) paradigm.  Like most theories, Kohlberg’s ideas of moral development include concepts found in the works of other theorists, namely, Jean Piaget.  Kohlberg’s work was similar to Piaget’s  in its foundational aspects of moral and cognitive development.  Both theorists posited that moral and cognitive development are an active process, and both placed emphasis on construction of knowledge through a dialectical process.  

Approach, Framework, and Model   

    Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focuses on the process by which humans develop morally with an effort to discover how moral reasoning changed with age.  Using generated situations or dilemmas, Kohlberg presented simulated scenarios  to mostly young males.   He judged the males’ moral development on a set of questions concerning their perspectives and reasoning involving the dilemmas.  Kohlberg sampled between around 50-70 males (of privileged and upper class status)  in a longitudinal study where he repeatedly collected and analyzed results three times yearly for a 20 year period.    

From this work, Kohlberg posited that the males’ reasoning changed as they grew older. With this, Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning signifying that one can only pass through these levels in the order listed.  Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development include; (1) Pre-Conventional Morality, (2) Conventional Morality, and (3) Post Conventional Morality.  The pre-conventional stage (0-9 years) states that one does not have a personal moral code.  Morality is set by the standards of adults and consequences of behavior.  Two sub-stages are included in this first level: obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.  At this level, children move from a communal sense of morality to a personal state where they possess the ability to recognize more than one right view.  The conventional morality stage (adolescent-adult) states that one begins to internalize moral standards of role models.  Two sub-stages are also found at this level: good interpersonal relationships and maintaining the social order.  At this level, children move from being good for the purposes of being seen as good to becoming aware of societal rules (good for the order).  The post-conventional morality stage states that moral judgement is based on one’s own principles, morality, and individual rights and justice.  It is important to note that Kohlberg believed that only 10% of people are capable of this type of reasoning.  Included at this level are two substages: social contract and individual right, and universal principles.   At this level, persons move from an understanding that societal rules are good but do not always fit an individual to a self-governing set of moral guidelines that may or may not fit the law.  Kohlberg derived that what we think/say and what we do are correlated, and that justice is the most fundamental moral principle.  

Real-World Connections

Contributions, Applications, and Limitations

    Lawrence Kohlberg provided the field of psychology with a view of moral development that postulated ideas central to moral reasoning.  Contributions of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development can most certainly be observed in parenting, teaching, and most forms of child-adult relationships.  Application of this theory encourages adults to praise wanted behavior and discourage unwanted behavior.  Adults may also provide scenarios in which children’s moral reasoning is guided and practiced.  Limitations of Kohlberg’s theory lay in his use of artificial dilemmas, a biased sample, poor research design, and rigid hierarchical stages of development.  His findings of justice as the most fundamental moral principle and the assumption that one will always behave in one’s way of moral reasoning is quite questionable but undoubtedly this theory laid a framework for further research.    

Gilligan’s Compassionate Caring Theory

“Women's deference is rooted not only in their social subordination but also in the substance of their moral concern. Sensitivity to the needs of others and the assumption of responsibility for taking care lead women to attend to voices other than their own and to include in their judgement other points of view.”

― Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development

Development of Theory, Paradigm, and Metatheory

Carol Gilligan (1936-present) is an American psychologist known best for her theory of compassionate caring.  Gilligan’s theory of compassionate caring is a divergent perspective on the theories of Sigmund Freud, Erik Erickson, Jean Piaget, and most closely Lawrence Kohlberg.  Gilligan’s theory rejects these theorists depiction of male development as the standard for females.  Her theory of compassionate care is divergent from Piaget and Kohlberg’s position that morality consists of a system of rules by which an individual’s morality is based.  Gilligan based her work on women (an often overlooked populous) postulating “that men are prone to think in terms of rules and justice whereas women are inclined to think in terms of caring and relationships.” (Thomas, 2005)    

Approach, Framework, and Model   

Carol Gilligan’s compassionate care theory focuses on the differences by which women develop morally in contrast to men-deriving at a two-voice perspective.   Using interviews, Gilligan surveyed participants by using hypothetical dilemmas (like Kohlberg) and asking for solutions and why those solutions were chosen; in addition to asking for solutions to moral crises that were currently being faced by participants.  Gilligan also used fables (Aesop’s Fables) to solicit participant solutions.  These differing dilemmas were used to capture varying aspects of participants’ understanding of justice and care.  Using published literature (i.e. literary classics, other scholars’ theories, and empirical studies), Gilligan corroborated and enriched her ideas through the reading, analysis, and incorporation of these materials into her theory.  

From her research, Gilligan derived that there are two perspectives of morality: justice-based and care-based.  She also stated that there are three stages of moral development (ethics of care): pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.  Within these stages, Gilligan proposes that one moves from a highly egocentric phase to a responsibility to others phase and finally a phase where one recognizes that, both, their own well-being and the well being of others are important.  In 1982, Gilligan published In a Different Voice, explaining the fundamental differences in the moral reasoning of men and women; making her a popular proponent of feminism.  

Real-World Connections

Contributions, Application, and Limitations

    Carol Gilligan’s work in the realm of moral development and the ethics of care imprinted the female perspective into the male dominated world of psychology.  Contributions of her theory gave voice to women as different yet equal to men.  Applications of her theory are clearly visible in the traditional gender roles embraced by our society.  Women are primarily nurturers and caregivers-aspects that most certainly affect our moral and ethical judgement.  Limitations of Gilligan’s work lay in an inability to duplicate her work, unreliable evidence, and insufficient research data.  Her differing perspective on morality and ethics derived from omissions in previous theories and has garnered reluctance of her research but Gilligan has undeniably made a place for another perspective at the table of psychology.  

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

“When people appear to be something other than good and decent, it is only because they are reacting to stress, pain, or the deprivation of basic human needs such as security, love, and self-esteem.”

-Abraham Maslow

Development of Theory. Paradigm, and Meta-theory

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was an American psychologist known best for his hierarchy of needs theory.  Maslow’s work proclaims that motivation lays in the crux of human needs.  Unlike those before him (namely  Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner), Maslow was not concerned with psychology’s previous focus on the abnormal or mentally ill.  Instead, Maslow’s interests constituted positive mental health leading him to study the top 1% of college students and the likes of such individuals as Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt and Frederick Douglass.      

Approach. Framework, and Model   

    Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory based on human development.  He postulated that certain needs take precedence over others and posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groups: deficiency of needs and growth needs.  Deficiency needs originate from a lack of something and are motivational factors when unmet.  Growth needs, on the other hand, do not stem from a lack of something but the urge to develop as a person.  Often depicted as a pyramid, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes fives stages or tiers situated in three overarching themes: (1) basic needs:physiological needs; safety needs, (2) psychological needs:belongingness and love needs; esteem needs, and (3) self-fulfillment needs:self-actualization.  Basic needs are described by Maslow as biological and physiological in nature comprising of air, food, water, shelter, warmth, sex and sleep.  Also included within basic human needs are protection from the elements, security, stability, order, and freedom of fear.  Psychological needs are described as friendships, intimacy, trust, acceptance, affection, affiliations, esteem, respect from others, and dignity.  Self-actualization is defined as awareness of personal potential and development, self-fulfillment, and capability desires.  

Initially, Maslow believed that one must satisfy a lower level deficit before progression can occur but later adjusted his theory to signify that human needs is not an “all or none” phenomenon. (McLeod, p. 2)

Real-World Connections

Contributions, Application, and Limitations

    Contributions from Maslow’s work can be applied beyond cultural differences as it deals with the human condition of motivation.  The use of Maslow’s theory is evident in parenting, teaching and any arena focused on the development and use of human potential.  Application of Maslow’s theory is evident in the ideas developed by Carl Rogers (American psychologist and one of the founders of the humanistic approach) where client-centered therapy arose which maintained that people, themselves, possess the inner resources for growth and healing and the goal of therapy is to help remove obstacles to this achievement.  Limitations of Maslow’s hierarchy lay in his sample comprising of mostly men and an extreme non-normative population validity.  His sampling methods and initial rigidity of stages provide justification for review of this theory but Maslow’s ideas paved the way for future endeavors in the way of humanistic psychology.  

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

“The true direction of the development of thinking is not from the individual to the social, but from the social to the individual.”

-Lev S. Vygotsky

Development of Theory, Paradigm, and Meta-theory     

Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist best known for his theory of sociocultural cognition involving language development.  Vygotsky’s theory involved cultural, historical, and linguistic systems in which he postulated that adults fostered children’s cognitive development.  In congruence with the Soviet tradition of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Vygotsky theorized that cognitive development derived from the following ideas: (1) activity generates thinking, (2) dialectical exchanges advance development, and (3) development is affected by historical processes within cultural contexts.  Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, both, developed theories of cognitive development but Vygotsky (unlike Piaget) believed “individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded.” (McLeod, 2016)  In addition, Vygotsky posited that cognition is also the result of an internalization of language.  

Approach, Framework, and Model   

    Vygotsky’s theory centered around a sociocultural approach to learning where activity generated thought.  Similar to Jean Piaget, Vygotsky’s goal of research was to uncover, not a right or wrong answer from children, but the procedure or process in which an answer was constructed.  However, unlike Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that social learning precedes cognitive development.  A double-simulations method was used to collect data about how a child uses an object to achieve a goal. This was done through observation using inferences about intellectual development.  

From his research, Vygotsky posited stages of language  and thought development which he deemed to be a social concept that grows through interactions.  Vygotsky held that thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life that slowly begin to merge in early life but never completely overlap.  With two purposes of function, (a. adults transmit information to children; b. a tool of intellectual adaptation) language takes on three forms in the early years: external communication, private speech, and private speech.  

Also contained within the work of Lev Vygotsky are the principles of More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).   These principles expound further expound upon Vygotsky’s premise that learning is a social process.  A MKO is simply someone with a better understanding or ability level than the learner.  ZPD refers to the area within a learner that is most receptive to new ideas and concepts.  The principles of MKO and ZPD, not only display the ideas of social learning, but also provides an understanding of differences in independent achievements and those that need guidance.  

Real-World Connections

Contributions, Application, and Limitations

    Contributions from Lev Vygotsky’s work can be applied beyond cultural differences as it deals with the the learning as a social construct.  The use of Vygotsky’s theory is evident in parenting, teaching, partnering, groupings, etcetera.  Application of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is evident in the classroom instructional strategies that require the partnering and grouping of children, like ‘reciprocal teaching’.  Other instructional elements evident from Vygotsky’s work are exemplified in activities like ‘scaffolding’, ‘mentor-ships’, and ‘apprenticeships’.  Limitations of Vygotsky’s theory lay in his untimely death at the age of 38, the process of translating his work, and the lack of a dedicated hypothesis.  Even with its current limitations, Lev Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural cognition has indelibly yielded invaluable contributions to developments in classroom construction, language progression, social learning, and pedagogical processes.  

Conclusion

From the information contained within this paper, one may conclude that the psychology of human development is necessary requiring extensive research and dedication to the human condition.  The small sample of pioneers contained within this paper are only a minute sampling of the contributions psychology has provided humanity in an effort to  understand and improve ourselves (methods of parenting and educating our youth, relating to one another, unlocking human potential or simply successfully navigating the annals of our lives).  Developmental psychology plays an essential role in science of humanity which is bound only by the limits of its constituents.  

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